In the late 1980s the UKDMC had explored the potential of different materials and techniques, including cryogenic LiF, CaF 2, silicon and germanium, from which a programme emerged at Boulby based on room-temperature NaI(Tl) scintillators. It evolved alongside the DRIFT programme which promoted the use of gas-filled TPCs to recover directional information on WIMP scattering.
#ZEPLIN III SERIES#
The ZEPLIN (ZonEd Proportional scintillation in LIquid Noble gases) series of experiments was a progressive programme pursued by the UK Dark Matter Collaboration using liquid xenon. The insets below the signal traces show Monte Carlo simulation of the optical signals. The fast scintillation pulse (S1) is generated promptly by scintillation in the liquid a larger, delayed pulse (S2) is obtained once the ionisation drifted from the interaction site is emitted into the thin gas phase above the liquid. Signal from ZEPLIN-III two-phase xenon detector. LUX is developing similar systems that have set improved limits.
Two-phase argon has also been used for dark matter searches by the WARP collaboration and ArDM. This technology was also adopted very successfully by the XENON programme. Developed alongside it, but on a faster timescale, ZEPLIN-II was the first such WIMP detector to operate in the world (2005). Lebedenko, one of its pioneers at the Moscow Engineering Physics Institute, was involved in building ZEPLIN-III in the UK from 2001. The technique itself, however, was first developed for radiation detection using argon in the early 1970s. The ZEPLIN programme pioneered the use of two-phase technology for WIMP searches. WIMP candidate events produce lower ionisation/scintillation ratios than the more prevalent background interactions. Critically for WIMP searches, the ratio between the two response channels (scintillation and ionisation) allows the rejection of the predominant backgrounds for WIMP searches: gamma and beta radiation from trace radioactivity in detector materials and the immediate surroundings. The horizontal coordinates can be reconstructed from the hit pattern in the photomultiplier array(s). This configuration is that of a time projection chamber (TPC) it allows three-dimensional reconstruction of the interaction site, since the depth coordinate (z) can be measured very accurately from the time separation between the two light pulses. These systems are also known as xenon 'emission detectors'. Once in the gas, they generate a second, larger pulse of light ( electroluminescence or proportional scintillation), which is detected by the same array of photomultipliers.
In two-phase xenon – so called since it involves liquid and gas phases in equilibrium – the scintillation light produced by an interaction in the liquid is detected directly with photomultiplier tubes the ionisation electrons released at the interaction site are drifted up to the liquid surface under an external electric field, and subsequently emitted into a thin layer of xenon vapour. They can produce two signatures for each particle interaction: a fast flash of light ( scintillation) and the local release of charge ( ionisation). Their nature is not yet known, but no sensible candidates remain within the Standard Model of particle physics to explain the dark matter problem.Ĭondensed noble gases, most notably liquid xenon and liquid argon, are excellent radiation detection media. These hypothetical elementary particles could be Weakly Interacting Massive Particles, or WIMPs, weighing as little as a few protons or as much as several heavy nuclei. It ruled out cross-sections for elastic scattering of WIMPs off nucleons above 3.9 × 10 −8 pb (2.9 × 10 −44 cm 2) from the two science runs conducted at Boulby (83 days in 2008 and 319 days in 2010/11).ĭirect dark matter search experiments look for extremely rare and very weak collisions expected to occur between the cold dark matter particles that are believed to permeate our galaxy and the nuclei of atoms in the active medium of a radiation detector. The ZEPLIN-III project was led by Imperial College London and also included the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory and Edinburgh University in the UK, as well as LIP-Coimbra in Portugal and ITEP-Moscow in Russia. This was the last in a series of xenon-based experiments in the ZEPLIN programme pursued originally by the UK Dark Matter Collaboration (UKDMC). It operated at the Boulby Underground Laboratory (North-East England, UK) in the period 2006–2011. The ZEPLIN-III dark matter experiment attempted to detect galactic WIMPs using a 12 kg liquid xenon target.
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